A BRIEF HISTORY OF NAZISM

Germany After World War I

To understand Nazism, we must start with post-war Germany. It’s 1918, and the country is devastated by its defeat in World War I. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicates and goes into exile. A provisional government is forced to sign a surrender, and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles imposes harsh conditions:

• Germany loses significant territories.
• Its armed forces are reduced to a minimum.
• It must pay enormous war reparations: 132 billion gold marks.

The result? A humiliated Germany in economic and social crisis. The Weimar Republic is born, with its main political parties being Social Democrats, Catholics, and Liberals.

The new constitution, approved in Weimar in 1920, promises democracy and civil rights, but it fails to gain public trust. The “stab-in-the-back” myth spreads—a false theory promoted by the military that accuses politicians of betraying the country by surrendering to the enemies and signing the Treaty of Versailles.

In this context, extremist groups start gaining ground: on one side, there are revolutionary attempts, and on the other, the Freikorps—armed groups of ultranationalist ex-soldiers. The government doesn’t hesitate to use the Freikorps to violently suppress insurrection attempts.

This chaos becomes fertile ground for new ideologies.

The Birth of the Nazi Party

In 1919, the German Workers’ Party is founded in Munich, which changes its name in 1920 to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or simply the Nazi Party.

What does it advocate? A mix of ideas but without a clear programmatic structure, combining:

• Extreme nationalism.
• Rejection of democracy.
• Anticapitalism.

The Nazis also establish a paramilitary structure, the SA (Storm Troopers), also known as “Brownshirts.” In 1925, another unit is added: the SS (Protection Squads), initially meant as a security force and personal guard for Hitler. Under Himmler’s leadership, the SS would gain increasing power.

The Rise of Hitler

Hitler enters the Nazi movement in 1920. Born in 1889 in Austria to a lower-middle-class family, he is an ardent nationalist, a supporter of German racial superiority, and already holds antisemitic views in his youth. During the war, he volunteered for the German army and is among those who feel betrayed by the new government.

Hitler first becomes involved with the party as an army informant but soon adopts its propaganda ideas and discovers his talent for public speaking. His speeches ignite passions, and by 1921, he becomes the party’s leader.

Hitler’s goal goes beyond rhetoric: he seeks to seize power. In 1923, during the Ruhr crisis, which triggers a severe economic downturn, he organizes a coup attempt in Munich. The attempt fails, and Hitler ends up in prison—though he serves only one year instead of the five he was sentenced to.

While in prison, Hitler writes Mein Kampf (My Struggle), a book that becomes the foundation of Nazi ideology.

Key ideas in Mein Kampf:

• A racial hierarchy based on the supremacy of the Aryan race.
• The belief that the state is subordinate to the community of people united by blood, language, and land.
• Antisemitism.
• Anti-Bolshevism.
• The “Führer principle”: a hierarchical society led by an absolute leader.
• The necessity of acquiring Lebensraum (living space) in the East by taking territory from Slavic populations.

The Road to Power

After the failed coup, Hitler realizes he must follow the parliamentary path to power, though without abandoning the use of violence.

However, after the Ruhr crisis, Germany’s situation improves. In 1924, the Dawes Plan restructures war reparations and attracts private American investments. In 1925, the Locarno Agreements pave the way for Germany’s entry into the League of Nations and a stabilization of international relations.

As a result, Nazism remains on the fringes: in the 1928 parliamentary elections, it gains only 2% of the vote.

Everything changes with the 1929 economic crisis. The Great Depression hits Germany hard, spreading inflation, unemployment, and poverty. Traditional parties lose credibility, and Hitler’s message gains more and more supporters.

In 1932, Hitler runs in the presidential elections, making it to the runoff against Hindenburg, a conservative former military commander. Although Hitler loses, his figure garners even more support.

The Nazi Party continues to grow. In the same year’s parliamentary elections, it wins 37% of the vote, and in another election a few months later, 33%.

The Political Context of 1932

In 1932, the Nazi Party became the leading political force in Germany, and political fragmentation made it impossible to form a government without Nazi involvement. This is where Hitler skillfully exploited the democratic system. On January 30, 1933, through an agreement with right-wing liberal forces, he was appointed Chancellor at the head of a coalition government. Like fascism, Nazism rose to power through parliamentary means.

A key figure in this process was Franz von Papen, an associate of President Hindenburg and a representative of high finance and industry. Von Papen believed Hitler could be “controlled” from within, a fatal miscalculation reminiscent of the one that had paved Mussolini’s way in Italy.

The Reichstag Fire and Authoritarian Turn

After his appointment as Chancellor, Hitler called for new elections to secure an absolute majority. Amid a climate of violence, on February 27, 1933, the Reichstag, Germany’s parliament, was set on fire. The Nazis blamed the communists, using the alleged threat to national security as a pretext. Hitler obtained Hindenburg’s authorization to suspend fundamental freedoms such as freedom of expression, freedom of the press, and the right to a fair trial. Political opponents were thus persecuted and silenced.

The Enabling Act and the Establishment of Dictatorship

In the elections that followed, the Nazi Party won 44% of the vote. On March 23, 1933, with support from center and right-wing parties, Hitler secured the passage of the Enabling Act, allowing him to govern without parliamentary oversight. Within months, Germany was transformed into a dictatorship:

• All political parties, except the Nazi Party, were dissolved.
• Trade unions were abolished and replaced by the German Labor Front, a single organization controlled by the Nazis.
• Regional autonomy was eliminated.

With external opposition crushed and total control established, Hitler moved to eliminate internal opposition. In the summer of 1934, he ordered the purge of the SA, led by Ernst Röhm, to reassure the regular army, as Röhm aimed to create a new army based on the SA. This violent operation, known as the “Night of the Long Knives” (June 30–July 1), also targeted political opponents.

In early August 1934, following Hindenburg’s death, Hitler assumed the presidency, combining it with the chancellorship. He was now the absolute leader of Germany and proclaimed the Third Reich.

What Kind of Regime Did Hitler Create?

The Polycentric Nature of the Nazi Regime

An interesting aspect to highlight is the so-called “polycentrism.” Most historians agree that the Nazi regime lacked a single power center, with various competing bodies. For example:

• Security was managed by both the regular police and the SS.
• Justice involved state courts alongside the “People’s Court” for political crimes, controlled by the SS.
• The economy was divided between the traditional ministry and a Four-Year Plan under Hermann Göring.

This fragmentation was deliberate, enabling Hitler to maintain ultimate control as an arbiter among factions.

Economic Policy

Economically, Hitler addressed the crisis of 1929 with major public works, such as building highways, and an extensive rearmament policy. This mixed economic system combined state intervention with private enterprise profits, preparing for military expansion. Public investment eliminated unemployment, achieving Hitler’s goal of reviving the economy.

Racial Ideology and Discrimination

At the heart of Nazism was racial ideology. From 1933, persecutions began against Jews, Roma, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and so-called asocial elements such as the disabled, mentally ill, or homosexuals, considered societal outcasts.
Alongside their confinement in concentration camps, drastic eugenic measures were implemented, including forced sterilizations and euthanasia programs resulting in thousands of deaths.

At the center of this discriminatory policy was antisemitism, rooted in historical anti-Judaism. From the Nazis’ rise to power, Jews faced boycotts of their businesses and gradual expulsion from public employment and professions. The situation escalated in 1935 with the Nuremberg Laws, stripping Jews of citizenship and banning intermarriage between Aryans and non-Aryans.

In 1938, antisemitic persecution intensified during Kristallnacht (“Night of Broken Glass”), a violent pogrom involving mass arrests and destruction of Jewish property.

Propaganda

A fundamental aspect of Nazism was the construction of consensus through propaganda.
Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, orchestrated an unprecedented communication campaign. Radios, films, and newsreels spread Nazi ideology widely, with inexpensive radios ensuring every German household received the message. Events like the 1936 Berlin Olympics showcased the grandeur of the Third Reich.

Propaganda centered on Hitler’s speeches and grand rallies. Architecture also became a symbol of the dictatorship, with Albert Speer designing monumental structures to represent the Reich’s eternal power.
Symbolic acts like the 1933 book burnings targeted works by Jewish or “degenerate” authors such as Freud and Marx.

Education and Youth

Propaganda was complemented by educational reforms. Teachers deemed ideologically unsuitable were removed from schools and universities. Subjects like history, biology, and literature were reshaped to promote Aryan racial myths.

Youth organizations like the Hitler Youth and League of German Girls became mandatory, indoctrinating children with Nazi values and glorifying Hitler. Activities like sports, songs, and marches made this indoctrination emotionally engaging.

Repression

Under Nazism, Germany became a totalitarian state controlling all aspects of life. Repression tools included:

• The Gestapo, the secret state police under Himmler, which operated without accountability and conducted extrajudicial actions.
• A vast network of informants encouraged anonymous reporting.
• Concentration camps, starting with Dachau in 1933, detained political opponents and later other marginalized groups.

This repressive apparatus effectively crushed dissent. Communist and socialist underground networks were dismantled.

The White Rose, a Catholic youth movement opposing the regime during the war, was quickly suppressed. Some dissent arose among traditional elites, especially regarding military expansion, culminating in a failed 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler

Foreign Policy and Rearmament

From the outset, Hitler aimed to restore German military power. In 1933, Germany left the League of Nations and pursued policies violating the Versailles Treaty, such as reintroducing conscription and reoccupying the Rhineland.

Hitler’s diplomatic moves included forming the Rome-Berlin Axis with Mussolini (1936) and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and Italy (1937). Nazi Germany also supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War.

In 1938, German aggression escalated. Hitler annexed Austria in March, dismantled Czechoslovakia in September, and, on September 1, 1939, invaded Poland. This triggered Britain and France’s declaration of war on Germany, marking the start of World War II. The conflict would end six years later with the Nazi regime’s catastrophic fall, at a devastating cost to the world.